Email this article 
Fermentation-Mediated Modulation of Nutraceutically Relevant Polyphenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Capacity of Red Spinach (Amaranthus tricolor L.) Leaf Extract
Abstract
Fermentation has emerged as a promising biotechnological approach to enhance the nutraceutical quality of plant-based materials through targeted modulation of bioactive compounds. This study investigated the effects of aerobic and anaerobic fermentation on total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and antioxidant capacity of red spinach (Amaranthus tricolor L.) leaf extracts. Aerobic fermentation markedly enhanced the phytochemical profile, yielding a 1.87-fold increase in TPC (121.28 mg GAE/g extract) and a 1.66-fold increase in TFC (897.82 mg QE/g extract) compared with fresh leaves. These compositional improvements translated into superior functional activity, as evidenced by the lowest IC50 value (56.07 mg/L) and the highest antioxidant activity index (AAI = 0.713). In contrast, anaerobic fermentation provided limited phenolic enrichment and resulted in substantial flavonoid degradation, leading to inferior antioxidant performance. Strong correlations between polyphenolic contents and antioxidant parameters confirmed that phenolics and flavonoids are key contributors to radical scavenging activity. Overall, the findings demonstrate that aerobic fermentation is an effective, low-cost strategy to improve the nutraceutical value and antioxidant capacity of red spinach leaf extracts, highlighting its potential application in the development of functional foods and nutraceutical ingredients.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
Ahmed, A., Nasim, F. U.-H., Batool, K., & Bibi, A. (2017). Microbial ?-Glucosidase: Sources, Production and Applications. Journal of Applied & Environmental Microbiology, 5(1), 31–46. https://doi.org/10.12691/jaem-5-1-4
Bhanja Dey, T., & Kuhad, R. C. (2014). Enhanced production and extraction of phenolic compounds from wheat by solid-state fermentation with Rhizopus oryzae RCK2012. Biotechnology Reports, 4, 120–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.btre.2014.09.006
Bondet, V., Brand-Williams, W., & Berset, C. (1997). Kinetics and Mechanisms of Antioxidant Activity using the DPPH.Free Radical Method. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 30(6), 609–615. https://doi.org/10.1006/fstl.1997.0240
Chaudhary, M. R., Chaudhary, S., Sharma, Y., Singh, T. A., Mishra, A. K., Sharma, S., & Mehdi, M. M. (2023). Aging, oxidative stress and degenerative diseases: mechanisms, complications and emerging therapeutic strategies. Biogerontology, 24(5), 609–662. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10522-023-10050-1
Day, A. J., DuPont, M. S., Ridley, S., Rhodes, M., Rhodes, M. J. C., Morgan, M. R. A., & Williamson, G. (1998). Deglycosylation of flavonoid and isoflavonoid glycosides by human small intestine and liver ??glucosidase activity. FEBS Letters, 436(1), 71–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-5793(98)01101-6
Elfahmi, Woerdenbag, H. J., & Kayser, O. (2014). Jamu: Indonesian traditional herbal medicine towards rational phytopharmacological use. Journal of Herbal Medicine, 4(2), 51–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hermed.2014.01.002
Evangelista-Albacea, A. R. B., Flandez, L. E. L., Castillo-Israel, K. A. T., & Lizardo-Agustin, R. C. M. (2025). Fermented Java Plum (Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels) Juice Using Lactiplantibacillus plantarum: Effect of Fermentation on Its Antioxidant Capacity, ?-Glucosidase Inhibition, and Sensory Properties. Natural and Life Sciences Communications, 24(3). https://doi.org/10.12982/NLSC.2025.045
Fuguet, E., Ràfols, C., Mañé, M., Ruiz, R., & Bosch, E. (2023). Acidity constants of hydroxyl groups placed in several flavonoids: Two flavanones, two flavones and five flavonols. Talanta, 253, 124096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2022.124096
Gu, Q., Duan, G., & Yu, X. (2019). Bioconversion of flavonoid glycosides from hippophae rhamnoides leaves into flavonoid aglycones by eurotium amstelodami. Microorganisms, 7(5). https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms7050122
Heo, H. J., Kim, Y. J., Chung, D., & Kim, D.-O. (2007). Antioxidant capacities of individual and combined phenolics in a model system. Food Chemistry, 104(1), 87–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.11.002
Huang, G., Zhang, M., Zhang, S., Wang, J., Zhang, R., Dong, L., Huang, F., Su, D., & Deng, M. (2024). Unveiling biotransformation of free flavonoids into phenolic acids and Chromones alongside dynamic migration of bound Phenolics in Lactobacillus-fermented lychee pulp. Food Chemistry, 457, 140115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140115
Jahan, F., Bhuiyan, M. N. H., Islam, Md. J., Ahmed, S., Hasan, Md. S., Bashera, M. Al, Waliullah, Md., Chowdhury, A. N., Islam, Md. B., Saha, B. K., & Moulick, S. P. (2022). Amaranthus tricolor (red amaranth), an indigenous source of nutrients, minerals, amino acids, phytochemicals, and assessment of its antibacterial activity. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 10, 100419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100419
Karageorgou, D., Sainis, I., Touka, A., Vareli, K., Stamatis, H., & Katapodis, P. (2022). Biomass and ?-Glucosidase Production by the Cyanobacterium Pseudanabaena sp. under Heterotrophic Conditions. Biomass, 2(4), 299–315. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomass2040020
Kumar, A., Saranyadevi, S., Thirumalaisamy, S. K., Dapana Durage, T. T., Jaiswal, S. G., Kavitake, D., & Wei, S. (2025). Phenolic acids in fermented foods: microbial biotransformation, antioxidant mechanisms, and functional health implications. Frontiers in Molecular Biosciences, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmolb.2025.1678673
Lin, Q.-L., Åkesson, B., & Bergenståhl, B. (2008). Effect of colloidal structures on the stability of five flavonoids with different hydrophilicity. Food Hydrocolloids, 22(4), 700–705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2007.01.016
Lv, X., Zhang, L., Gao, X., Zhang, L., Ding, X., Wang, X., Jia, N., Li, W., Li, J., Song, C., Zhang, C., & Wang, S. (2025). The promotion of iron redox cycle on anaerobic degradation of 3, 5, 6-trichloro-2-pyridinol in Pseudomonas aeruginosa D-2 by accelerating energy metabolism. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 13(3), 117041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.117041
Marco, M. L., Heeney, D., Binda, S., Cifelli, C. J., Cotter, P. D., Foligné, B., Gänzle, M., Kort, R., Pasin, G., Pihlanto, A., Smid, E. J., & Hutkins, R. (2017). Health benefits of fermented foods: microbiota and beyond. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 44, 94–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2016.11.010
Newman, D. J., & Cragg, G. M. (2020). Natural Products as Sources of New Drugs over the Nearly Four Decades from 01/1981 to 09/2019. Journal of Natural Products, 83(3), 770–803. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.9b01285
Nimse, S. B., & Pal, D. (2015). Free radicals, natural antioxidants, and their reaction mechanisms. RSC Advances, 5(35), 27986–28006. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ra13315c
Nowak, M., Tryniszewski, W., Sarniak, A., Wlodarczyk, A., Nowak, P. J., & Nowak, D. (2022). Concentration Dependence of Anti- and Pro-Oxidant Activity of Polyphenols as Evaluated with a Light-Emitting Fe2+-Egta-H2O2 System. Molecules, 27(11), 3453. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27113453
Okoye, C. O., Wu, Y., Wang, Y., Gao, L., Li, X., & Jiang, J. (2023). Fermentation profile, aerobic stability, and microbial community dynamics of corn straw ensiled with Lactobacillus buchneri PC-C1 and Lactobacillus plantarum PC1-1. Microbiological Research, 270, 127329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2023.127329
Park, C.-M., Kim, G.-M., & Cha, G.-S. (2021). Biotransformation of Flavonoids by Newly Isolated and Characterized Lactobacillus pentosus NGI01 Strain from Kimchi. Microorganisms, 9(5), 1075. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9051075
Paventi, G., Di Martino, C., Coppola, F., & Iorizzo, M. (2025). ?-Glucosidase Activity of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum: A Key Player in Food Fermentation and Human Health. Foods, 14(9), 1451. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14091451
Permanasari, E. D., Amalia, M. P. R., Susilo, S., & Prastiwi, R. (2024). Total Flavonoid Content and Antioxidant Properties of Different Extraction Methods of Red Spinach Leaf (Amaranthus tricolor L.). Jurnal Sains Farmasi & Klinis, 11(1), 17–24. https://doi.org/10.25077/jsfk.11.1.17-24.2024
Perron, N. R., & Brumaghim, J. L. (2009). A review of the antioxidant mechanisms of polyphenol compounds related to iron binding. Cell Biochemistry and Biophysics, 53(2), 75–100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12013-009-9043-x
PHAM, T. T., & SHAH, N. P. (2009). HYDROLYSIS OF ISOFLAVONE GLYCOSIDES IN SOY MILK BY ?-GALACTOSIDASE AND ?-GLUCOSIDASE. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 33(1), 38–60. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4514.2008.00206.x
Piechocka, J., Gramza-Micha?owska, A., & Szymandera-Buszka, K. (2021). The Changes in Antioxidant Activity of Selected Flavonoids and Caffeine Depending on the Dosage and Form of Thiamine. Molecules, 26(15), 4702. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26154702
Sarker, U., Rabbani, Md. G., Oba, S., Eldehna, W. M., Al-Rashood, S. T., Mostafa, N. M., & Eldahshan, O. A. (2022). Phytonutrients, Colorant Pigments, Phytochemicals, and Antioxidant Potential of Orphan Leafy Amaranthus Species. Molecules, 27(9), 2899. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27092899
Scherer, R., & Godoy, H. T. (2009). Antioxidant activity index (AAI) by the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl method. Food Chemistry, 112(3), 654–658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.06.026
Schink, B. (2006). Microbially driven redox reactions in anoxic environments: Pathways, Energetics, and biochemical consequences. In Engineering in Life Sciences (Vol. 6, Issue 3, pp. 228–233). https://doi.org/10.1002/elsc.200620130
Setiawansyah, A., Arsul, M. I., Sukrasno, S., Damayanti, S., Insanu, M., & Fidrianny, I. (2024). Anti-hyperuricemic potential of caryophyllene from Syzygium aromaticum essential oil: SiO2-AgNO3-based column chromatography purification, antioxidant, and xanthine oxidase inhibitory activities. Advances in Traditional Medicine, 24(2), 475–487. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13596-023-00710-5
Setiawansyah, A., Fiolita, B., Agatha, S., Sitindaon, R. S. E., Reynaldi, M. A., Hidayat, L. H., Hadi, I., Permatasari, L., Hidayati, N., Arsul, M. I., & Dirgantara, S. (2025). Impact of post-harvest process and methanol polarity on the content of niazirin, flavonoids, phenols, and antioxidant activity index of Moringa oleifera Lam leaves. Food and Humanity, 5, 100767. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foohum.2025.100767
Setiawansyah, A., Widiyawati, A. T., Sari, M. S. D., Reynaldi, M. A., Hidayati, N., Alrayan, R., & Nugroho, S. A. (2025). FT-IR-based fingerprint combined with unsupervised chemometric analysis revealed particle sizes and aqueous-ethanol ratio alter the chemical composition and nutraceutical value of Daucus carota. Natural Product Research, 39(22), 6483–6491. https://doi.org/10.1080/14786419.2024.2376351
Sharma, R., Garg, P., Kumar, P., Bhatia, S. K., & Kulshrestha, S. (2020). Microbial Fermentation and Its Role in Quality Improvement of Fermented Foods. Fermentation, 6(4), 106. https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation6040106
Spórna-Kucab, A., Tekieli, A., Kisiel, A., Grzegorczyk, A., Skalicka-Wo?niak, K., Starzak, K., & Wybraniec, S. (2023). Antioxidant and Antimicrobial Effects of Baby Leaves of Amaranthus tricolor L. Harvested as Vegetable in Correlation with Their Phytochemical Composition. Molecules, 28(3), 1463. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28031463
Stiti, N., Podgórska, K. A., & Bartels, D. (2020). S-Nitrosation impairs activity of stress-inducible aldehyde dehydrogenases from Arabidopsis thaliana. Plant Science, 292, 110389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2019.110389
Tsuchiya, Y., Nakamura, T., Izumi, Y., Okazaki, K., Shinano, T., Kubo, Y., Katsuhara, M., Sasaki, T., & Yamamoto, Y. (2021). Physiological Role of Aerobic Fermentation Constitutively Expressed in an Aluminum-Tolerant Cell Line of Tobacco ( Nicotiana tabacum ). Plant and Cell Physiology, 62(9), 1460–1477. https://doi.org/10.1093/pcp/pcab098
Walle, T., Browning, A. M., Steed, L. L., Reed, S. G., & Walle, U. K. (2005). Flavonoid Glucosides Are Hydrolyzed and Thus Activated in the Oral Cavity in Humans ,. The Journal of Nutrition, 135(1), 48–52. https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/135.1.48
Xiao, J., Capanoglu, E., Jassbi, A. R., & Miron, A. (2016). Advance on the Flavonoid C -glycosides and Health Benefits. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 56(sup1), S29–S45. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2015.1067595
Yamamoto, S., Afifi, O. A., Lam, L. P. Y., Takeda?Kimura, Y., Osakabe, Y., Osakabe, K., Bartley, L. E., Umezawa, T., & Tobimatsu, Y. (2024). Disruption of aldehyde dehydrogenase decreases cell wall?bound p ?hydroxycinnamates and improves cell wall digestibility in rice. The Plant Journal, 120(6), 2828–2845. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.17148
Yang, X., Lim, S. H. M., Lin, J., Wu, J., Tang, H., Zhao, F., Liu, F., Sun, C., Shi, X., Kuang, Y., Toy, J. Y. H., Du, K., Zhang, Y., Wang, X., Sun, M., Song, Z., Wang, T., Wu, J., Houk, K. N., & Huang, D. (2022). Oxygen mediated oxidative couplings of flavones in alkaline water. Nature Communications, 13(1), 6424. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-022-34123-w
Zeb, A. (2020). Concept, mechanism, and applications of phenolic antioxidants in foods. Journal of Food Biochemistry, 44(9), e13394. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13394
Zhang, Q., Pan, J., Liu, H., & Jiao, Z. (2023). Characterization of the Synergistic Antioxidant Activity of Epigallocatechin Gallate (EGCG) and Kaempferol. Molecules, 28(13), 5265. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28135265
DOI: https://doi.org/10.14421/biomedich.2026.151.585-596
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
Copyright (c) 2026 Nur Amelia, Yovi Pranata, Arif Setiawansyah, Mauritz Pandapotan Marpaung, Fika Minata Wathan
Biology, Medicine, & Natural Product Chemistry |
|
